generally growth oriented managers


generally growth oriented managers
While we are generally growth oriented managers, we also in 2012 had good reason to believe that many of our holdings represent excellent values. As of December 31st 2012, 66 of our 80 holdings were trading below the average (1979 to present) price to book ratio of the S&P 500 index.  Our average price to book was 1.45, compared to 2.27 for the S&P 500.

Finally, a compelling argument, if we needed one, for hastening the transition to an economy that can persist and even thrive in a warming world was recently articulated by the World Economic Forum at Davos. "On the economic front, global resilience is being tested by bold monetary and austere fiscal policies. On the environmental front, the Earth's resilience is being tested by rising global temperatures and extreme weather events that are likely to become more frequent and severe. A sudden and massive collapse on one front is certain to doom the other's chances of developing an effective, long-term solution." In other words, we need to get the economy on a sustainable footing before it comes unraveled. Given the imperative of this reality, we have difficulty imagining a near-future scenario where the best next economy companies don’t become the most important to society and subsequently, potentially the best performing.

The decisions we make as an interconnected global civilization now will be the difference between catastrophe and a thriving society with a healthy economy. Given the stakes, we have no doubts about how to place our bets.

Thanks for your continued support of Green Alpha Advisors and investing in the next economy.

Green Alpha Advisors' Annual Client Letter and Portfolio Commentary


Green Alpha Advisors' Annual Client Letter and Portfolio Commentary

Garvin Jabusch and Jeremy Deems
2012 saw a return to positive performance for the next economy and for markets overall. Generally, global economic conditions, as indicated by some jobs growth, slowly improving industrial output and a housing rebound, improved marginally, but debt crises in Europe and America, exacerbated by eternal dithering, gamesmanship and posturing by politicians and other policy makers on both continents, kept optimism in check and moderated expectations for growth. With respect to the next economy, though, growth and expectations for growth began showing real signs of building momentum as mainstream awareness of the need ensure the longevity of the world economy by changing some of its foundations continued to advance. Thus our ‘next economy’ macroeconomic thesis became still more relevant and closer to fruition.

The basic macroeconomics of the next economy thesis are fundamental, and their essentials don’t change over time.  As we wrote in last year's letter: “Earth’s economies may stagnate or grow; either way, we believe things like renewable energy, clean transportation, sustainable infrastructure and water resources must grow in value. Over time, the value of stocks in our models will not be dependent on Wall Street gamesmanship, but on simple necessity. As awareness of the magnitude of our growing resource-climate-security problems advances, so will the valuations of our portfolio companies.” Even as chronic fiscal imbalances distract world leaders’ attention from climate and resource challenges, business, individual and institutional investors, academia, think tanks and research all are addressing the latter at an ever accelerating pace.

Thus we continue to be very optimistic about our potential to provide competitive long term returns performance to our portfolio shareholders. Essentially, Green Alpha Advisors is an asset manager offering portfolios of stocks in companies with proven business plans responding to the challenges presented by a warming, increasingly populous, resource-constrained world. Portfolios of these companies deliver growth in all sectors including transportation, communications, commerce, infrastructure, materials, energy, agriculture and water. Considering:

I. The world’s population is growing fast, but its resources aren’t,

II. Energy security and national security depend upon the U.S. minimizing use of foreign oil,

III. The fossil-fuels based economy, with its digging, burning, scarring of the landscape, disruption of ecology, and disease causing pollution, is ultimately too expensive to maintain, and

IV. Climate change,

it’s clear the time is past due for serious investment in mitigation and adaptation, and indeed the signs that people and institutions are getting that are becoming omnipresent.

Each of the three Green Alpha portfolios saw a positive return for 2012. Our flagship green economy benchmark, the Green Alpha Next Economy Index (or GANEX) returned 4.21%; our Sierra Club Green Alpha portfolio (SCGA), actively managed and more concentrated than the GANEX, returned 6.79%; and our newest portfolio, the Green Alpha Growth and Income Portfolio (GAGIP), was up 6.96% for the partial year from its inception on October 8th, 2012.  While we are happy to return to positive performance after a tough year for next economy stocks in 2011, we did nevertheless underperform the legacy fossil-fuels based indices; the S&P 500 was up 16% and the Dow Jones Industrial Average returned 7.26% in 2012. All three of our portfolios did however outperform prominent green economy ETF portfolios (see discussion below).

All Green Alpha portfolios are based on our universe of next economy companies, with individual securities and weights selected to best fit the mandate of each portfolio. We’re especially pleased that December 30th 2012 saw the fourth anniversary of the inception of the GANEX, reflecting a four year track record milestone measuring the growth and progress of the overall next economy. (On the topic of portfolios, look for an exciting announcement from us later in Q1 regarding our fourth and newest portfolio offering that will greatly enhance our ability to serve current and future clients.)

On the securities level, we saw once again in 2012 the importance of diversification across all sectors of the next economy. We find it hard to overemphasize this point: the post fossil fuels economy is emerging in all sectors, so to invest as though renewable energy (as critical as it is) is the only aspect of a green economy is shortsighted and results in high volatility. Attempting to represent the entirety of the next economy, our Green Alpha Next Economy Index (GANEX) is invested in 27 sectors and 52 sub-sectors, spanning, we believe, nearly everything required for a broad-based economic system to function. Reviewing GANEX’s top five 2012 total return performers gives some indication of its diversification:

Badger Meter, Inc. (BMI), 63.98%. Badger makes water meters, “flow measurement and control solutions” for farming, commercial, utility and residential applications. The U.S. drought of 2012 (and continuing) has brought the need for smarter, more productive water management into sharp focus. You can’t manage what you don’t measure.
Trex Company, Inc. (TREX), 62.51%.  Trex is the world's largest manufacturer of high performance wood-alternative decking. We consider Trex a prime example of waste-to-value economics that not only keeps huge quantities of waste out of landfills and oceans (Trex used 3.1 billion plastic bags in 2010, participates in a system responsible for 70% of all U.S. plastic bag recycling, and has never harvested a single tree to make its product), but also delivers a superior product with better long term value. In a world of constrained resources, making great stuff from leftovers is the best of all worlds.
Cree, Inc. (CREE), 54.17%. Cree is a leading developer of high efficiency LED lighting and systems and semiconductors for radio frequency applications. Cree LEDs can provide illumination as efficiently as 200 lumens per Watt, compared to 14½ lumens per Watt of a 60W incandescent bulb. This translates to big savings in energy and money, and is a straightforward example of one of our primary themes, focusing on innovation in economic efficiencies – getting more output out of less input.
Valmont Industries, Inc. (VMI), 51.03%. Valmont Industries provides critical infrastructure such as efficient mechanized poles and towers for wind turbines, lighting, communications and more. In 2012, VMI gave our portfolios exposure to the infrastructure aspects multiple trends such as the booming mobile and mobile web markets as well as the growing wind energy sector without the risk associated with an individual turbine manufacturer. Full disclosure, for valuation reasons, we removed Valmont from our portfolios as of year-end 2012.
The Hain Celestial Group, Inc. (HAIN), 47.9%. Hain Celestial is a leader in natural and organic food that vertically integrates manufacturing, marketing sales and distribution. We think of Hain as a macroeconomic bet on efforts of people to improve their individual health, and also on efforts at a policy and advocacy level to manage mushrooming and economically destructive escalation in healthcare costs. In addition, from a long-term agricultural management point of view, we think that that industry’s ever more potent pesticides, herbicides and petroleum based fertilizers will prove so deleterious to human health, land productivity and biosphere health that organic methods will continue to increase in popularity, and may one day even be required.
From the standpoint of our next economy sector classification scheme (NESC), the top performing Industry and Sector in the GANEX Portfolio was the Products (Industry), Capital Goods & Equipment (Sector), with Portfolio exposure of 16.11%.

The chart below shows the performance of the GANEX, from its inception on December 30, 2008 to the end of 2012, versus two prominent green exchange traded funds, the Guggenheim Solar portfolio (TAN, in gold here), and the PowerShares WilderHill Clean Energy ETF (PBW, the black line). Over this period, the GANEX returned 28.15%, while the TAN was -79.22% and PBW performance was -46.68%. To be clear, GANEX differs significantly from these other two. TAN is a basket of exclusively solar and solar-related stocks, and PBW, though not as sector focused as TAN, is limited primarily (but not exclusively) to renewable energy. GANEX by contrast attempts to capture the entirety of the next economy, including renewable energy and solar, but also everything else we’ll need to have a thriving economic system, including, again, transportation, communications, commerce, infrastructure, materials, energy, agriculture, water and more. So while the comparison with these two may not be exact, we believe it does show the importance of careful diversification into all areas of the emerging green economy.

GE Energy Financial Services


GE Energy Financial Services announced today it has more than doubled its global solar power investment commitments in the past year to US $1.4 billion, for nearly US $5 billion in projects. Its latest deal is a US $100 million investment in a 127-megawatt project that will be built in Arizona.

GE announced at the Infocast Solar Power Finance & Investment Summit in San Diego that its 1-gigawatt portfolio spans 48 solar power plants—including 24 San Diego school rooftops—in six countries: Australia, Canada, Italy, Portugal, Spain and the United States.

GE’s latest investment is in LS Power’s US $550 million Arlington Valley Solar Energy II project, a crystalline silicon photovoltaic solar farm whose construction is expected to begin next month near Arlington, Arizona. Converting sunlight into electricity, the solar power project—located on approximately 1,160 acres—will provide enough clean, affordable energy to power approximately 53,000 California homes and displace 215,000 tons of greenhouse gas emissions per year, equivalent to taking 38,000 cars off the road. When operational at the end of 2013, San Diego Gas & Electric will buy the power from the plant, which also will help California meet its target of generating 33% of its electricity from renewable sources by 2020. Fluor Corporation designed, is building and will operate and maintain the solar farm.

In 2011, GE agreed to invest in a 50MW portfolio of solar PV farms in Canada, a 10MW solar PV project in Australia, a 550MW solar PV project in the United States, and a 20MW solar PV power plant atop a greenhouse in Italy. In addition to these and other direct investments in solar projects, GE has made venture investments in solar energy technology companies, as well as in the Spain-based solar project developer and operator FRV. Overall, the GE unit has made more than US $8 billion in renewable energy commitments globally, including solar, wind, biomass, hydro and geothermal power assets.

News for solar power invest


It almost doesn’t make sense…
Last year, Germany, the United States, Italy and the U.K. all installed a record number of solar panels in their respective countries.
In fact, Germany installed more solar panels in December than the United States did in all of 2009.
Yet solar stocks were blindsided by investors in 2011. Top firms like First Solar (Nasdaq: FSLR) fell as much as 80% during the year. Many others fell more than 50%.
What happened?
As our own energy guru David Fessler explained last week:
“Polysilicon prices have collapsed 90% in the last five years. By the end of 2011, they were halved to $0.90 per watt.”

This epic price collapse, coupled with the fact that manufacturers had ramped up production, sent most solar manufacturers plummeting.
Today, most investors see the huge sell-off as a reason to steer clear of solar stocks. But these crash-level prices have also created a number of opportunities to scoop up great companies at deep discounts.
A Solar Comeback

In addition to being undervalued, there are three more reasons 2012 is set to be a banner year for solar stocks…
Record low prices boosting global demand: Some analysts worry a supply glut will continue suppressing solar stocks in 2012. Yet solar’s new low prices are sending demand for solar products much higher. Demand is expected to jump in the United States, Europe and Asia this year. China is poised to double its solar capacity for the second year in a row, 4 to 5 GW. Not to mention, solar is also quickly becoming a viable solution for the 1.3 billion people around the world with no access to grid energy.
Solar is more efficient than Ever: On top of record low polysilicon prices, solar efficiency is also making leaps and bounds. According to MIT’s Technology Review, conventional silicon solar panels typically convert less than 15% of light. Yet a startup out of North Carolina, Semprius, just tested its solar panels and scored a 33.9% efficiency rating. This is the first time ever any solar module has been able to convert more than one-third of the sunlight that falls on it into electricity. And it makes solar energy generation look much more promising for the future.
Big investors are getting involved: Even though government subsidies are set to wind down over the next few years in Europe and the United States for solar, big investors are already picking up the slack. Berkshire Hathaway owned MidAmerican Energy Holdings announced in December it purchased a solar farm in Southern California for $2 billion. Google reported it invested over $450 million last year as well in solar projects. GE announced in 2011 that it’s going to build the largest solar plant in America, capable of powering 80,000 homes each year. Billions of dollars more is expected to flood this market over the coming months.
The Solar ETF That Covers it All

There’s no doubt, the solar industry is set to grow immensely over the coming years. But tariffs, expected consolidation, and the steady removal of government subsidies make it hard to tell who is and isn’t set to profit.
Perhaps the easiest way to invest in solar today is simply looking to an ETF like the Global Solar Index ETF (NYSE: TAN). This fund is currently comprised of 33 securities all relative to solar energy. About a third of its holdings are in the United States, a third is in China and the rest is spread out between Europe and Canada.

Invest quotes


Invest quotes
Warren Buffett Quotes On Investing
I was searching the entire web for some of the famous quotes by Warren Buffett (Warren Buffet). I don’t know how many I’ve read. But I would like to share with you 79 of them which I find interesting and which makes sense. If you are an investor then it’s a must read! And feel free to comment below if I’d missed something! Happy Investing!

‘Never invest in a business you cannot understand.’
‘Always invest for the long term.’
‘Buy a business, don’t rent stocks.’
‘Someone’s sitting in the shade today because someone planted a tree a long time ago.’
‘I really like my life. I’ve arranged my life so that I can do what I want.’
‘We will only do with your money what we would do with our own.’
‘If you don’t feel comfortable owning something for 10 years, then don’t own it for 10 minutes.’
‘I am a better investor because I am a businessman and a better businessman because I am an investor.’
‘Price is what you pay. Value is what you get.’
‘The Stock Market is designed to transfer money from the Active to the Patient.’
‘Stop trying to predict the direction of the stock market, the economy, interest rates, or elections.’
‘I never attempt to make money on the stock market. I buy on the assumption that they could close the market the next day and not reopen it for ten years.’
‘I don’t look to jump over 7-foot bars: I look around for 1-foot bars that I can step over.’
‘For some reason, people take their cues from price action rather than from values. What doesn’t work is when you start doing things that you don’t understand or because they worked last week for somebody else. The dumbest reason in the world to buy a stock is because it’s going up.’
‘We don’t get paid for activity, just for being right. As to how long we will wait, we’ll wait indefinitely.’
‘As Buffet said in the speech, “He’s not looking at quarterly earnings projections, he’s not looking at next year’s earnings, he’s not thinking about what day of the week it is, he doesn’t care what investment research from any place says, he’s not interested in price momentum, volume or anything. He’s simply asking: What is the business worth?’
‘Buy companies with strong histories of profitability and with a dominant business franchise.’
‘Most people get interested in stocks when everyone else is. The time to get interested is when no one else is. You can’t buy what is popular and do well.’
‘When asked how he became so successful in investing, Buffett answered: ‘we read hundreds and hundreds of annual reports every year.’
‘When a management team with a reputation for brilliance joins a business with poor fundamental economics, it is the reputation of the business that remains intact.’
‘Only those who will be sellers of equities in the near future should be happy at seeing stocks rise.  Prospective purchasers should much prefer sinking prices.’
‘Diversification is a protection against ignorance. It makes very little sense for those who know what they’re doing.’
‘Wide diversification is only required when investors do not understand what they are doing.’
‘You’re neither right nor wrong because other people agree with you. You’re right because your facts are right and your reasoning is right – that’s the only thing that makes you right. And if your facts and reasoning are right, you don’t have to worry about anybody else.’
‘It takes 20 years to build a reputation and five minutes to ruin it. If you think about that, you’ll do things differently.’
‘The first rule is not to lose. The second rule is not to forget the first rule.’
‘Only buy something that you’d be perfectly happy to hold if the market shut down for 10 years.’
‘I will tell you how to become rich. Close the doors. Be fearful when others are greedy. Be greedy when others are fearful.’
‘Why not invest your assets in the companies you really like? As Mae West said, ‘Too much of a good thing can be wonderful.’
‘Our favorite holding period is forever.’
‘Risk comes from not knowing what you’re doing.’
‘Time is the friend of the wonderful company, the enemy of the mediocre.’
‘Unless you can watch your stock holding decline by 50% without becoming panic-stricken, you should not be in the stock market.’
‘The critical investment factor is determining the intrinsic value of a business and paying a fair or bargain price.’
‘Investors making purchases in an overheated market need to recognize that it may often take an extended period for the value of even an outstanding company to catch up with the price they paid.’
‘Risk can be greatly reduced by concentrating on only a few holdings.’
‘It is not necessary to do extraordinary things to get extraordinary results.’
‘An investor should ordinarily hold a small piece of an outstanding business with the same tenacity that an owner would exhibit if he owned all of that business.’
‘Great investment opportunities come around when excellent companies are surrounded by unusual circumstances that cause the stock to be misappraised.’
‘In the business world, the rearview mirror is always clearer than the windshield.’
‘If a business does well, the stock eventually follows.’
‘Cash never makes us happy, but it’s better to have the money burning a hole in Berkshire’s pocket than resting comfortably in someone else’s.’
‘A public-opinion poll is no substitute for thought.’
‘I never buy anything unless I can fill out on a piece of paper my reasons. I may be wrong, but I would know the answer to that. “I’m paying $32 billion today for the Coca Cola Company because.” If you can’t answer that question, you shouldn’t buy it. If you can answer that question, and you do it a few times, you’ll make a lot of money.’
‘The investor of today does not profit from yesterday’s growth.’
‘You only have to do a very few things right in your life so long as you don’t do too many things wrong.’
‘It’s far better to buy a wonderful company at a fair price than a fair company at a wonderful price.’
‘You ought to be able to explain why you’re taking the job you’re taking, why you’re making the investment you’re making, or whatever it may be. And if it can’t stand applying pencil to paper, you’d better think it through some more. And if you can’t write an intelligent answer to those questions, don’t do it.’
‘Look at market fluctuations as your friend rather than your enemy; profit from folly rather than participate in it.’
‘An investor needs to do very few things right as long as he or she avoids big mistakes.’
‘Do a lot of reading’ (On how to determine the value of a business)
‘The investor of today does not profit from yesterday’s growth.’
‘Only when the tide goes out do you discover who’s been swimming naked.’
‘The fact that people will be full of greed, fear, or folly is predictable. The sequence is not predictable.’
‘You do things when the opportunities come along. I’ve had periods in my life when I’ve had a bundle of ideas come along, and I’ve had long dry spells. If I get an idea next week, I’ll do something. If not, I won’t do a damn thing.’
‘Time is the friend of the wonderful company, the enemy of the mediocre.’
‘I do not like debt and do not like to invest in companies that have too much debt, particularly long-term debt. With long-term debt, increases in interest rates can drastically affect company profits and make future cash flows less predictable.’
‘We will reject interesting opportunities rather than over-leverage our balance sheet.’
‘I always knew I was going to be rich. I don’t think I ever doubted it for a minute.’
‘Turnarounds seldom turn.’
‘If at first you do succeed, quit trying on investing.’
‘I don’t measure my life by the money I’ve made. Other people might, but certainly don’t.’
‘Anything can happen in stock markets and you ought to conduct your affairs so that if the most extraordinary events happen, that you’re still around to play the next day.’
‘You shouldn’t own common stocks if a 50 per cent decrease in their value in a short period of time would cause you acute distress.’
‘With few exceptions when a manager with a reputation for brilliance tackles a business with a reputation for poor economics, it is the reputation of the business which remains intact.’
‘The business schools reward complex behavior more than simple behavior, but simple behavior is more effective.’
‘It’s not debt per say that overwhelms an individual corporation or country. Rather it is a continuous increase in debt in relation to income that causes trouble.’
‘A great investment opportunity occurs when a marvelous business encounters a one-time huge, but solvable problem.’
‘You do not adequately protect yourself by being half awake when other are sleeping.’
‘We like to buy businesses, but we don’t like to sell them.’
‘Money to some extent sometimes let you be in more interesting environments. But it can’t change how many people love you or how healthy you are.’
‘It’s us fun being a gorse when the tractor comes along, or the blacksmith when the car comes along.’
‘Enjoy your work and work for whom you admire.’
‘With enough insider information and a million dollars, you can go broke in a year.’
‘Read Ben Graham and Phil Fisher read annual reports, but don’t do equations with Greek letters in them.’
‘In a commodity business, it’s very hard to be smarter than your dumbest competitor.’
‘A hyperactive stock market is the pickpocket of enterprise.’
‘Valuing a business is part art and part science.’
‘Chains of habits are too light to be felt until they are too heavy to be broken.’

Mitglieder des Vorstandes der HypoVereinsbank


Mitglieder des Vorstandes der HypoVereinsbank
UniCredit Bank AG
Lutz Diederichs
Lutz Diederichs
Unternehmer Bank
geboren am 8. November 1962 in Heinsberg/Rheinland
Beruflicher Werdegang

seit Januar 2010
Mitglied des UniCredit Management Committee

seit Oktober 2009
Mitglied des UniCredit Executive Committees Corporate & Investment Banking

seit Januar 2009
Mitglied des Vorstands der UniCredit Bank AG, München
Geschäftsbereich Unternehmer Bank
(seit Januar 2013),
Corporate & Investment Banking
(Oktober 2009 – Januar 2013),
Corporate Banking und Markets & Investment Banking (April 2009 – Oktober 2009),
Firmenkundengeschäft (Januar 2009 –
April 2009)

Mai 2008–Dezember 2008
Head of Corporate Division Bayerische Hypo- und Vereinsbank AG; Member of UniCredit Group Executive Committee Corporate Division

Januar 2008–April 2008
Bereichsvorstand Großkunden und kommerzielle Immobilienkunden

2004–2007
Leiter des Geschäftsbereiches Firmenkunden Mitte/Ost

2002–2003
Leiter des Geschäftsbereiches Ost Firmenkunden und Freie Berufe, Berlin

2000–2001
Leiter Firmenkundensteuerung & Marketing, München

1997–1999
Leiter Firmen- und Immobilienkunden, Niederlassung Dresden

1995–1997
Betreuung gehobener mittelständischer Firmenkunden, Berlin-Brandenburg

1991–1995
Risikomanagement Firmenkunden- und Immobiliengeschäft Berlin-Brandenburg, Betreuung mittelständischer Firmenkunden, Berlin

1990
Traineeausbildung für Hochschulabsolventen im Firmenkunden- und Immobiliengeschäft der Bayerischen Vereinsbank AG, Bonn/Stuttgart

Studium der Volkswirtschaftslehre, Bonn, Diplom-Volkswirt

Mutual Funds


Mutual Funds


A mutual fund is a type of investment company that pools money from many investors and invests the money in stocks, bonds, money-market instruments, other securities, or even cash. Here are some characteristics of mutual funds:

Investors purchase shares in the mutual fund from the fund itself, or through a broker for the fund, and cannot purchase the shares from other investors on a secondary market, such as the New York Stock Exchange or Nasdaq Stock Market. The price that investors pay for mutual fund shares is the fund’s approximate net asset value (NAV) per share plus any fees that the fund may charge at purchase, such as sales charges, also known as sales loads.

Mutual fund shares are "redeemable." This means that when mutual fund investors want to sell their fund shares, they sell them back to the fund, or to a broker acting for the fund, at their current NAV per share, minus any fees the fund may charge, such as deferred sales loads or redemption fees.

Mutual funds generally sell their shares on a continuous basis, although some funds will stop selling when, for example, they reach a certain level of assets under management.

The investment portfolios of mutual funds typically are managed by separate entities known as "investment advisers" that are registered with the SEC. In addition, mutual funds themselves are registered with the SEC and subject to SEC regulation.

There are many varieties of mutual funds, including index funds, stock funds, bond funds, and money market funds. Each may have a different investment objective and strategy and a different investment portfolio. Different mutual funds may also be subject to different risks, volatility, and fees and expenses. Fees reduce returns on fund investments and are an important factor that investors should consider when buying mutual fund shares.

savings bank


 savings bank is a financial institution whose primary purpose is accepting savings deposits. It may also perform some other functions.
In Europe, savings banks originated in the 19th or sometimes even the 18th century. Their original objective was to provide easily accessible savings products to all strata of the population. In some countries, savings banks were created on public initiative, while in others, socially committed individuals created foundations to put in place the necessary infrastructure.
In 1914, the New Student's Reference Work said of the origins:[1]
France claims the credit of being the mother of savings banks, basing this claim on a savings bank said to have been established in 1765 in the town of Brumuth, but it is of record that the savings bank idea was suggested in England as early as 1697. There was a savings bank in Hamburg, Germany, in 1778 and in Berne, Switzerland, in 1787. The first English savings bank was established in 1799, and postal savings banks were started in England in 1861. The first chartered savings bank in the United States was the Provident Institution for Savings in the Town of Boston, incorporated December 13, 1816. The Philadelphia Savings Fund Society began business the same year, but was not incorporated until 1819. In 1818 banks for savings were incorporated in Baltimore and Salem, and in 1819 in New York, Hartford, Newport and Providence.
Nowadays, European savings banks have kept their focus on retail banking: payments, savings products, credits and insurances for individuals or small and medium-sized enterprises. Apart from this retail focus, they also differ from commercial banks by their broadly decentralised distribution network, providing local and regional outreach.
Austria: see Erste Group
Brazil: see Caixa Econômica Federal
Communist Czechoslovakia: see Economy of Communist Czechoslovakia
Germany: see Sparkassen
New Zealand: Savings banks ceased to exist in 1987 as an official type of bank, being replaced with registered banks (Grimes, 1998)
Norway: see Sparebank
Portugal: see Caixa Geral de Depósitos
Soviet Union: Traditionally, the Russian term sberkassa (сберкасса, сберегательная касса) is translated as "savings bank". However sberkassas were not banks in the common sense. Initially they were the outlets of the only Soviet State Bank, Gosbank until 1987 and Sberbank (USSR Savings Bank) afterwards.
Spain: see Savings bank (Spain)
United Kingdom: see Trustee savings bank
United States: see Savings and loan association, Federal savings bank, and Mutual savings bank

In finance

In finance
Finance is the study of how investors allocate their assets over time under conditions of certainty and uncertainty. A key point in finance, which affects decisions, is the time value of money, which states that a unit of currency today is worth more than the same unit of currency tomorrow. Finance aims to price assets based on their risk level, and expected rate of return. Finance can be broken into three different sub categories: public finance, corporate finance and personal finance.


 investment is the application of funds to hold assets over a longer term in the hope of achieving gains and/or receiving income from those assets. It generally does not include deposits with a bank or similar institution. Investment usually involves diversification of assets in order to avoid unnecessary and unproductive risk.
In contrast, dollar (or pound etc) cost averaging and market timing are phrases often used in marketing of collective investments and can be said to be associated with speculation.
Investments are often made indirectly through intermediaries, such as pension funds, banks, brokers, and insurance companies. These institutions may pool money received from a large number of individuals into funds such as investment trusts, unit trusts, SICAVs etc to make large scale investments. Each individual investor then has an indirect or direct claim on the assets purchased, subject to charges levied by the intermediary, which may be large and varied.

In economics or macroeconomics


In economics or macroeconomics



economic theory or in macroeconomics, investment is the amount purchased per unit time of goods which are not consumed but are to be used for future production (i.e. capital). Examples include railroad or factory construction. Investment in human capital includes costs of additional schooling or on-the-job training. Inventory investment is the accumulation of goods inventories; it can be positive or negative, and it can be intended or unintended. In measures of national income and output, "gross investment" (represented by the variable I) is also a component of gross domestic product (GDP), given in the formula GDP = C + I + G + NX, where C is consumption, G is government spending, and NX is net exports, given by the difference between the exports and imports, X − M. Thus investment is everything that remains of total expenditure after consumption, government spending, and net exports are subtracted (i.e. I = GDP − C − G − NX).
Non-residential fixed investment (such as new factories) and residential investment (new houses) combine with inventory investment to make up I. "Net investment" deducts depreciation from gross investment. Net fixed investment is the value of the net increase in the capital stock per year.
Fixed investment, as expenditure over a period of time ("per year"), is not capital. The time dimension of investment makes it a flow. By contrast, capital is a stock— that is, accumulated net investment to a point in time (such as December 31).
Investment is often modeled as a function of Income and Interest rates, given by the relation I = f(Y, r). An increase in income encourages higher investment, whereas a higher interest rate may discourage investment as it becomes more costly to borrow money. Even if a firm chooses to use its own funds in an investment, the interest rate represents an opportunity cost of investing those funds rather than lending out that amount of money for interest.